The Art and Science of Protective Relaying
- C Russel Mason
CONTENTS
1.
The philosophy of protective relaying
What
is protective relaying?
The
function of protective relaying
Fundamental
principles of protective relaying
-
primary relaying
-
back-up relaying
-
protection against other abnormal conditions
Functional
characteristics of protective relaying
-
sensitivity, selectivity, and speed
-
reliability
How
do protective relays operate?
2.
Fundamental relay-operating principles and characteristics
General
considerations
-
operating principles
-
definitions of operation
-
operation indicators
-
seal-in and holding coils, and seal-in relays
-
adjustment of pickup or reset
-
time delay and its definitions
Single-quantity
relays of the electromagnetic-attraction type
-
operating principle
-
ratio of reset to pickup
-
tendency toward vibration
Directional
relays of the electromagnetic attraction type
-
operating principle
-
efficiency
-
ratio of continuous thermal capacity to pickup
Induction-type
relays–general operating principles
-
the production of actuating force
-
types of actuating structure
Single-quantity
induction relays
-
torque control
-
effect of frequency
-
effect of d-c offset
-
ratio of reset to pickup
Directional
induction relays
-
torque relations in terms of actuating quantities
-
the significance of the term “directional”
-
the polarizing quantity of a directional relay
-
the operating characteristic of a directional relay
-
the “constant-product” characteristic
-
effect of d-c offset and other transients
The
universal relay-torque equation
3.
Current, voltage, directional, current (or voltage)-balance, and differential
relays
General
protective-relay features
Overcurrent,
undercurrent, overvoltage and undervoltage relays
D-C
directional relays
A-C
directional relays
Current
(or voltage) – balance relays
Differential
relays
4.
Distance relays
The
impedance-type distance relay
The
modified impedance-type distance relay
The
reactance-type distance relay
The
mho-type distance relay
General
considerations applicable to all distance relays
5.
Wire-pilot relays
Why
current-differential relaying is not used
Purpose
of a pilot
Tripping
and blocking pilots
D-C
wire-pilot relaying
Additional
fundamental considerations
A-C
wire-pilot relaying
6.
Carrier-current-pilot and microwave-pilot relays
The
carrier-current pilot
The
microwave pilot
Phase-comparison
relaying
Directional-comparison
relaying
Looking
ahead
7.
Current transformers
Types
of current transformers
Calculation
of C.T accuracy
Polarity
and connections
8.
Voltage transformers
Accuracy
of potential transformers
Capacitance
potential devices
The
use of low-tension voltage
Polarity
and connections
9.
Methods for analyzing generalizing, and visualizing relay response
The
R-X diagram
Short
circuits
Power
swings and loss of synchronism
Response
of polyphase directional relays to positive- and negative-phase-sequence
volt-amperes
Response
of single-phase directional relays to short circuits
Phase-sequence
filters
10
A.C generator and motor protection
Generator
protection
11.
Transformer protection
Power
transformers and power auto transformers
Step
voltage regulators
Grounding
transformers
Electric
arc-furnace transformers
Power-rectifier
transformers
12
bus protection
Protection
by back-up relays
The
fault bus1
Directional-comparison
relaying
Current-differential
relaying with over current relays
Partial-differential
relaying
Current-differential
relaying with percentage-differential relays
Voltage-differential
relaying with “linear couplers”
Current-differential
relaying with over voltage relays
Combined
power-transformer and bus protection
The
value of bus sectionalizing
Back-up
protection for bus faults
Grounding
the secondaries of differentially connected CT’s
Once-a-shift
testing of differential-relaying equipment
13.
Line protection with over current relays
How
to set inverse-time-over current relays for coordination
Arc
and ground resistance
Effect
of loop circuits on over current relay adjustments
Effect
of system on choice of inverseness of relay characteristic
The
use of instantaneous over current relays
An
incidental advantage of instantaneous over current relaying
Overreach
of instantaneous over current relays
The
directional feature
Use
of two versus three relays for phase-fault protection
Single-phase
versus poly phase directional-over current relays
How
to prevent single-phase directional over current-relay mis-operation during
ground faults
Adjustment
of ground versus phase relays
Effect
of limiting the magnitude of ground-fault current
Transient
C.T errors
Detection
of ground faults in ungrounded systems
Effect
of ground-fault neutralizers on line relaying
The
effect of open phases not accompanied by a short circuit
The
effect of open phases accompanied by short circuits
Polarizing
the directional units of ground relays
Negative-phase-sequence
directional units for ground-fault relaying
Current-balance
and power-balance relaying
Automatic
reclosing
Restoration
of service to distribution feeders after prolonged outages
Coordinating
with fuses A-C and capacitor tripping
14.
Line protection with distance relays
The
choice between impedance, reactance, or mho
The
adjustment of distance relays
The
effect of arcs on distance-relay operation
The
effect of intermediate current sources on distance-relay operation
Overreach
because of offset current waves
Overreach
of ground distance relays for phase faults
Use
of low-tension voltage
Use
of low-tension current
Effect
of power-transformer magnetizing-current inrush on distance-relay operation
The
connections of ground distance relays
Operation
when PT fuses blow
Purposeful
tripping on loss of synchronism
Blocking
tripping on loss of synchronism
Automatic
reclosing
Effect
of presence of expulsion protective gaps
Effect
of a series capacitor
Cost-reduction
schemes for distance relaying
Electronic
distance relays
15.
Line protection with pilot relays
Wire-pilot
relaying
Obtaining
adequate sensitivity
The
protection of multi terminal lines
Current-transformer
requirements
Back-up
protection
Carrier-current-pilot
relaying
Phase
comparison
Directional
comparison
Combined
phase and directional comparison
All-electronic
directional-comparison equipment
High-speed
reclosing
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